The Soviet montage theory is a fundamental concept in the study of film, particularly regarding the impactful ways editing can be used to evoke emotions and convey complex ideas. Developed primarily in the Soviet Union during the 1920s, this theory revolves around the collision of independent shots (montages) to generate intellectual responses and emotional reactions from the audience that are not inherent in the individual shots themselves.
Definition of Soviet Montage Theory
Soviet montage theory emphasizes the importance of editing and considers montage as the foundation of filmmaking. It contrasts with the continuity editing of classical Hollywood cinema, which aims to provide a seamless narrative experience. Soviet filmmakers like Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Dziga Vertov argued that through the juxtaposition of unrelated images, filmmakers could manipulate the viewer’s perception and produce meaning that transcends the content of the individual shots. This method can exploit the differences or similarities in the film’s graphical, rhythmic, spatial, and temporal aspects.
Sergei Eisenstein’s Five Methods of Montage
Eisenstein, a key proponent of the montage theory, classified five methods of montage in his writings, each serving different purposes in storytelling and emotional manipulation:
- Metric Montage: Where the editing follows a specific number of frames, building a rhythm regardless of the content of the images.
- Rhythmic Montage: Similar to metric but with consideration to the content within the frames which dictates the rhythm.
- Tonal Montage: The emotional tone of the shots dictates the structure.
- Overtonal Montage: A synthesis of metric, rhythmic, and tonal montage.
- Intellectual Montage: Juxtaposes unrelated images to elicit intellectual concepts.
Examples of Montage in Classic and Modern Cinema
The influence of Soviet montage theory extends beyond its historical period and geographical origins, impacting various filmmakers and movements around the world. Modern films often incorporate elements of this theory, using rapid montage editing to create psychological impact and symbolic meaning. For example:
The Godfather (1972)
Directed by Francis Ford Coppola: The infamous baptism scene in “The Godfather” is a quintessential example of intellectual montage. Coppola intercuts the serene ritual of a baptism with the violent murders of the Corleone family’s enemies. This juxtaposition heightens the impact of each scene and creates a stark contrast between innocence and brutality, emphasizing Michael Corleone’s dual role as a godfather and a crime lord.
Rocky (1976)
Directed by John G. Avildsen: The training montage in “Rocky” has become iconic in film history, showcasing the use of rhythmic and metric montage to show progress over time. The sequence of Rocky Balboa training for the big fight, set to inspiring music, effectively compresses time and shows his physical and mental preparation in a motivating and emotionally engaging way.
JFK (1991)
Directed by Oliver Stone: Stone uses a form of intellectual montage throughout “JFK” to present a range of evidence and theories about the assassination of President Kennedy. By intercutting historical footage with reenactments and different narrative perspectives, the film creates a complex tapestry that encourages viewers to question and think critically about the events depicted.
Directed by Francis Ford Coppola: This film features several montage sequences that illustrate the horrors of war and the psychological turmoil of the characters, especially during the famous “Ride of the Valkyries” helicopter attack scene. The juxtaposition of the calm, majestic music with the brutal aerial attack creates a disturbing contrast that enhances the film’s themes of madness and the duality of man.
These films, while diverse in genre and style, reflect the continuing relevance of Soviet montage theory in exploring new cinematic languages and techniques to tell compelling stories and evoke strong emotional responses from audiences.
The concept of montage has evolved but the core of its influence remains evident in how filmmakers can manipulate time and perception through editing, proving that the principles behind Soviet montage theory still serve as a powerful tool in film narrative and aesthetics.
Why Soviet Montage Declined: Political and Technological Shifts
The end of the Soviet Montage movement was largely influenced by several political and cultural factors within the Soviet Union during the late 1920s and early 1930s.
Stalin’s Rise and Socialist Realism
The ascent of Joseph Stalin to power brought significant changes to all sectors of Soviet life, including the arts and cinema. Stalin’s regime emphasized more direct control over cultural expressions, favoring a style known as Socialist Realism over the experimental and often politically ambiguous nature of montage cinema. Socialist Realism was not just a recommended aesthetic but a mandatory state policy that required art to be accessible, ideologically sound (from the perspective of the Communist Party), and optimistic, portraying the Soviet life in a positive light.
Under Stalin, the government sought to centralize the film industry, streamlining it to serve more explicit propaganda purposes. This centralization involved reining in the creative freedoms that had allowed for the flourishing of montage techniques under directors like Sergei Eisenstein, Dziga Vertov, and others. The state’s control aimed to ensure that films conveyed clear messages that supported Soviet ideology and policies without the ambiguity and complex intellectual stimuli characteristic of montage cinema.
The Impact of Sound and Economics
The advent of sound film also played a crucial role in the decline of the Soviet Montage movement. As the technology for sound in cinema became more prevalent and sophisticated, the focus of filmmaking shifted towards integrating dialogue and soundscapes with visuals, which altered the way films were structured. This technological shift made some of the visual innovations of montage less central to filmmaking, as the ability to use spoken language changed the ways stories could be told and reduced the reliance on purely visual storytelling techniques that were the hallmark of montage.
Economic factors also influenced the decline of montage. The montage films were often not only artistically ambitious but also financially and technically demanding. In an era of economic struggles and a government push towards more cost-effective propaganda tools, the expensive and elaborate productions typical of montage cinema became less viable.
Soviet Montage’s Legacy in Contemporary Film
The decline of the Soviet Montage movement was thus a multifaceted phenomenon driven by political ideology, economic considerations, and technological advancements in cinema. The shift towards Socialist Realism under Stalin’s regime marked a definitive end to the era of innovative montage techniques, aligning cinema more closely with the state’s goals and the portrayal of an idealized Soviet society. This transition reflects the broader dynamics of how political and economic contexts can profoundly influence artistic expression and innovation.
Next in the Series: Exploring Sergei Eisenstein’s Legacy
The next article in our series will explore the life and work of Sergei Eisenstein, one of the most seminal figures in film theory and the Soviet montage movement. Renowned for his innovative use of montage, Eisenstein’s contributions to cinema transcended mere storytelling; they were also profoundly theoretical, influencing not only film production but also broader discussions on media and culture.
In this upcoming piece, we will delve into Eisenstein’s background, his pivotal role in developing montage techniques, and his major films such as “Battleship Potemkin” and “Alexander Nevsky.” We’ll examine how his ideas were both a product of and a reaction to the political and cultural milieu of the Soviet Union during the early 20th century.
Stay tuned as we uncover the legacy of Eisenstein’s revolutionary approach to cinema, which continues to inspire filmmakers and academics around the world.
"Un Chien Andalou" ("An Andalusian Dog"): A Cornerstone of Surrealist Cinema
“Un Chien Andalou,” created in 1929 by Spanish director Luis Buñuel and artist Salvador Dalí, is often heralded as the quintessential work of surrealist cinema. This short film not only marked a pivotal moment in avant-garde filmmaking but also embodied the principles of the Surrealism movement that was gaining momentum in the art world at the time.
Background on Surrealism
Surrealism emerged as an artistic and literary movement in the early 1920s, primarily in Paris. Founded by poet André Breton, who published “The Surrealist Manifesto” in 1924, the movement sought to revolutionize the human experience, rejecting a rational vision of life in favor of one that asserted the value of the unconscious and dreams. Surrealism was heavily influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud, particularly his work on the unconscious mind. Artists and writers were drawn to Freud’s idea of the subconscious as a source of artistic creativity and sought to explore this in their work.
Surrealist films, including “Un Chien Andalou,” often delve into the irrational and the abstract, focusing on dream-like sequences that defy conventional logic and narrative structures. This approach reflects Freud’s theories, which emphasized the role of repressed desires and the unconscious in shaping human behavior. By translating these concepts into film, Buñuel and Dalí aimed to shock and provoke their audience, challenging traditional perceptions of reality and art.
The Genesis of “Un Chien Andalou”
In the vibrant cultural milieu of 1920s Paris, a city that had become the epicenter of artistic innovation and intellectual discourse, the foundations for one of the most influential films in the history of avant-garde cinema were laid. It was within this stimulating environment that the paths of Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí crossed, leading to a collaboration that would redefine surrealist cinema.
The Meeting of Minds
Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel, both Spanish expatriates, were drawn to Paris by its reputation as the world’s cultural capital—a place where artists, writers, and thinkers from various disciplines mingled and exchanged ideas. While Dalí was already certain of his path as a painter, Buñuel was still exploring his artistic inclinations. Their meeting sparked a friendship grounded in a mutual fascination with the avant-garde and the possibilities it presented.
In 1927, amid discussions about art and film, Buñuel and Dalí began sharing their dreams with each other, finding common ground in the vivid, often bizarre imagery that dreams conjured. They recognized the similarity between the disjointed, illogical progression of dreams and the abstract, non-linear narratives of avant-garde cinema. Inspired by this parallel, they decided to embark on a cinematic project that would use the dreamlike sequences of film to express the irrationality and absurdity of the subconscious mind.
The idea for “Un Chien Andalou” was born out of these exchanges. Buñuel and Dalí set out to create a film that would not follow traditional storytelling techniques but would instead mimic the unpredictable and often shocking nature of dreams. They aimed to shock and provoke their audience, using surreal imagery and illogical scenes that defied conventional interpretation and invited viewers to delve into the deeper, often unsettling layers of their own subconscious.
This groundbreaking approach was not just about visual storytelling; it was also a statement against the cinematic norms of the time, which largely adhered to linear narratives and clear, logical plots. Buñuel and Dalí saw film as the perfect medium to explore and express the dreamlike, a concept that was central to surrealist art but had not yet been fully realized in cinema.
Film Content and Themes
“Un Chien Andalou” is famous for its startling images and lack of a coherent plot, characteristics that align closely with surrealist objectives. The film opens with one of the most shocking scenes in cinema history—a woman’s eye being sliced with a razor—which sets the tone for a series of disjointed, dream-like vignettes. These scenes blend reality and fantasy, touching on themes of desire, fear, and the absurdity of human existence.
The film’s disjointed narrative is designed to mimic the free association of the subconscious mind, encouraging viewers to interpret the imagery in personal and potentially revealing ways. This method was directly aligned with Surrealist aims to disrupt the waking mind’s rational interpretations and societal norms.
The opening scene is infamous for its shocking and provocative nature, setting a precedent for the surreal and disturbing imagery that pervades the rest of the film. The film opens with a sequence that is unsettling and iconic: a man sharpens a razor at his balcony window, tests the blade on his thumb, and then proceeds to slice open a woman’s eye with the razor.
The act is shown in graphic detail, intercut with a shot of a thin cloud slicing across the moon, creating a visual parallel that enhances the scene’s disturbing quality. The woman’s eye being cut is a moment of extreme visual and psychological shock, designed to jolt the viewer out of complacency and into a different state of awareness.
The eye, often considered a window to the soul, is here violated in a manner that forces the viewer to question the nature of looking and the reliability of vision. This scene challenges the viewers’ usual passive reception of visual images, making them acutely aware of the act of seeing and the violence implicit in imposing a vision or interpretation upon another.
Legacy and Impact
“Un Chien Andalou” had a profound impact on both film and art, significantly influencing the development of both surrealist cinema and the broader language of cinematic symbolism. It remains a critical study in film courses around the world for its pioneering techniques and its ability to convey complex human emotions and thoughts through abstract representations.
This film not only exemplifies Surrealist cinema but also illustrates how avant-garde filmmakers used the medium to explore complex theoretical debates about the human mind and its relation to reality and society.
In summary, the involvement of painters in the French film avant-garde of the early 20th century not only enriched the art of cinema but also helped to redefine it as a space for radical experimentation and intellectual engagement. These contributions continue to inspire contemporary filmmakers and artists, ensuring the enduring legacy of this vibrant period in the history of film.
Deepen Your Knowledge with these books:
The Parisian Avant‑Garde in the Age of Cinema, 1900‑1923 – Focuses on Paris’s avant-garde movements and cinema in the early period. Good match for your interest in French painters-turned-filmmakers because it covers the moment when visual artists engaged with moving image in France.
Intermediality in European Avant‑garde Cinema – Focuses on cross-disciplinary media (painting, film, etc) in European avant‐garde cinema. Directly relevant to your topic of “painters who made films”
Theorizing Art Cinemas: Foreign, Cult, Avant‑Garde, and Beyond – Provides theory for art cinemas broadly, helps situate avant-garde cinema in a larger theoretical framework.
The Women’s Companion to International Film – While not narrowly about painters or French avant-garde, it broadens your perspective by including international/holistic film history; useful for comparative context.
Ex‑Cinema: From a Theory of Experimental Film and Video – Tackles experimental film and video theory—helpful because the painters’ filmmaking you mention is essentially experimental and non-narrative.
Art of the Avant‑gardes – A survey of avant-garde art (painting, sculpture, etc), giving you the visual-art side of the equation, helps understand the painter-filmmakers’ backgrounds.
